Origin of the term 
The term "Sterling Silver", in reference to the .925 grade of silver, emerged in England by the 13th century.
The terms "sterling" and "pound sterling", may acquired their meaning over a period of time, and from several convergent sources. The first mention is that of "sterilensis" in 1078, and by the thirteenth century (by the 1200's) the term sterling had appeared. "sterling" comes from the Old French esterlin and then stiere (strong, firm, immovable) in Old English. Jewelry History: [Read More]
"Easterling" Theory It seems quite possible that Sterling Silver may have been known first as "Easterling Silver". The term "Easterling Silver" was used to refer to the grade of silver that had originally been used as the local currency in an area of Germany, known as "The Easterling".
This "Easterling" consisted of five towns in the eastern part of Germany which banded together in the 12th century under the name of the Hanseatic League. The Hanseatic League proceeded to engage in considerable commerce with England. In payment for English cattle and grain, the League used their local currency. This currency was in the form of 92.5% silver coins. England soon learned that these coins, which they referred to as "the coins of the Easterlings", were of a reliably high quality and hardness. King Henry II set about to adopt the alloy as the standard for English currency. He imported metal refiners from the Easterling and put them to work making silver coins for England. The silver these refiners produced came into usage as currency by 1158 in the form of what are now known as "Tealby Pennies", and was eventually adopted as a standard alloy throughout England. The original term of "Easterling Silver" was later abbreviated to "Sterling Silver". Though the coin weights and silver purity changed considerably in the intervening time (reaching a low point before the reign of Elizabeth I, who reinstated Sterling Silver coinage for the first time since the early 14th century), the pound sterling was used as currency in England from the 12th century until the middle of the 20th century. Specifically this was in the silver coins of the British Empire -- Britain, British colonies and some former British colonies. This sterling coin silver is not to be confused with the Coin silver standard.
Sterling silver, while no longer used in circulating currency anywhere in the world, is still used for flatware, jewellery and plate, and is a grade of silver respected for both relatively high purity and sufficient hardness to form durable objects in daily use. Mint Mark Theory Another credible theory is that, since mint marks on Sterling Silver pennies have included a star and a starling, this may be the origin of the word -- as a simple corruption of, for example, "starling silver" with common reference to the circulating coin
Hallmarks A sterling silver object that is to be sold commercially is, in many countries, taken to an Assay office for testing of the purity of the metal. The item is then marked, usually via hammer and punch, with the Hallmark of that particular nation. Because this process leaves sharp edges and spurs of metal, it is generally done before the item is sent for its final wheel polishing. [read more]
The Hallmark for sterling silver varies from nation to nation.
The United Kingdom should be singled out for its excellent hallmarking system. The stamps on British sterling silver will tell you everything you need to know about a piece. First, a stamp to indicate the purity of the silver was applied. This was usually a Lion Passant, but there were variations over the years. Next was a letter to indicate the date. The typeface, whether the letter is uppercase or lowercase, and even the shape inside which the letter is stamped, must all be taken together to determine the year. Last to be stamped was a symbol to indicate the city in which the piece was manufactured. For example, a crown of a certain style indicated the city of Sheffield, while an anchor indicated the city of Birmingham (both well-known for silver production). This system of hallmarking is still in use today.
The French hallmark for sterling silver was the head of the goddess Minerva. In fact, the French standard for sterling silver was higher than that of other nations, requiring a silver content of 950 parts per thousand. Silver items with a slightly lower grade of silver, 800 parts per thousand, were also manufactured, and these were marked with the head of Minerva, next to which was a '2'. (Pieces from other nations also were manufactured in this lower grade of silver, but are stamped '800'.)
In some countries, such as the United States, no national hallmark was ever adopted, and the word "STERLING" or "925" was simply stamped into the piece. Because of this, some companies within the U.S., such as Tiffany and Gorham, adopted their own hallmarking systems. For example, pieces from the Gorham company can be identified by a Lion Passant (or Lion Rampant, depending on the year), an anchor and the letter 'G', and sometimes an accompanying number to indicate the style.
In addition to the hallmarks, silver manufacturers often applied their own specific stamp. For example, the letters 'T. and Co.' indicates a piece manufactured by Tiffany and Company. As mentioned above, the letter 'G' indicated the Gorham Company. These stamps were as unique as today's logos, and disputes often arose when one company copied another's stamp.
The difficulty with hallmarking systems other than that of the United Kingdom was that in most cases they could not pinpoint the manufacture to a specific year, but instead to a range of years during which the company was in business. Many larger companies did put out yearly catalogs, however, and these can be used as a reference to narrow down the date of a specific piece. In fact, there are people who make a good income doing research on the history of specific sterling pieces.
Other Silver standards Fine silver is 99.9% silver or better. This grade of silver is used to make bullion bars for international commodities trading. In the modern world Fine Silver is understood to be too soft for general use.
Britannia silver is purer than sterling, at least 95.84% silver and up to 4.16% copper. Its marks were Britannia and a lion's head in profile.
The Britannia standard was a standard of plate obligatory in Britain between 1697 and 1720 to try to help prevent British sterling silver coins from being melted to make plate. It became an optional standard thereafter, and in the United Kingdom and Ireland is now denoted by the millesimal fineness hallmark "958", with the symbol of Britannia being applied optionally.
Mexican silver is also purer than sterling, usually 95% Silver and 5% Copper. Mexico is the only country currently using silver in its circulating coinage, but these coins are not minted from 95% "Mexican" Silver.
Coin silver is 90% silver and 10% copper as dictated by United States FTC guidelines.
Coin Silver is lower grade than sterling. The Coin Silver standard was established in the US in the 1820s. This grade of silver was used in the silver coinage of the US as well as other countries that used silver currency minted in the US, such as Panama and the Philippines.
For industrial uses, for example in electronics, alloys such as CuAg are favored, which contains 72% silver and 28% copper and is known for its thermal conductivity.
The History of Sterling: A Century of Dining Regalia
From about 1840 to somewhere around 1940 in the United States and Europe, sterling silver flatware became de rigeur when setting a proper table. In fact, one can only compare the number of silver companies arising to the number of Internet companies arising in the late 1990s.
The height of the silver craze was during the 50-year period from 1870 to 1920. Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces. In conjunction with this, the dinner went from three courses to sometimes ten or more. (No wonder the ladies of yesteryear needed corsets!) There was a soup course, a salad course, a fruit course, a cheese course, an antipasto course, a fish course, the main course and a pastry or dessert course.
Individual eating implements often included forks (dinner fork, place fork1, salad fork2, pastry fork2, shrimp or cocktail fork, terrepin fork3), spoons (teaspoon, coffee spoon, demitasse spoon, bouillon spoon, gumbo soup spoon, iced tea spoon) and knives (dinner knife4, place knife, butter spreader, fruit knife, cheese knife). You name the type of food, and there was an implement for eating it. This was especially true during the Victorian time period, when etiquette dictated that nothing should be touched with one's fingers.
Serving pieces were often elaborately decorated and pierced and embellished with ivory, and could include any or all of the following: carving knife and fork, salad knife and fork2, cold meat fork, punch ladle, soup ladle, gravy ladle, casserole serving spoon, berry spoon, lasagna server, macaroni server, asparagus server, cucumber server, tomato server, olive spoon, cheese scoop, fish knife and fork, pastry server, petit four server, cake knife, bon bon spoon, sugar sifter or caster and crumb remover with brush. You name the type of food, and there was a serving implement for it.
Flatware sets were often accompanied by tea services, hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, sterling plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces.
In fact, the craze with sterling even extended to business (sterling page clips, mechanical pencils, calling card boxes, cigarette cases), to the boudoir (sterling dresser trays, mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoe horns, perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips) and even to children (cups, flatware, rattles, christening sets). You name it, and there was a sterling piece for it.
A number of factors converged to make sterling fall out of favor around the time of World War II. The cost of labor rose (sterling pieces were all still mostly man-made, with only the basics being done by machine). Only the wealthy could afford the large number of servants required for fancy dining with ten courses. And changes in aesthetics resulted in people desiring simpler dinnerware that was easier to clean. (The latter was especially important as more became known about disease.)
Corrosion As the purity of the silver increases, the problem of corrosion or tarnish lessens.
Chemically, silver is not very active — it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. However, the other metal in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.
However, silver is highly reactive toward sulfur. Silver tarnish is the formation of black silver sulfide on the surface of the metal, and is caused by sulfur and sulfides which attack the surface of the silver. Because of this, the rate of discoloration of silver by tarnish is worse with higher levels of these airborne pollutants.
Eggs, which contain a considerable quantity of sulfur as a constituent of protein, tarnish silver extremely quickly. Small amounts of sulfide occur in the atmosphere naturally, but another major man-made source is hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which is added to natural gas used domestically. Hence a gas flame can also tarnish silver.
The black silver sulfide (Ag2S) is among the most insoluble salts in aqueous solution, a property that is exploited for separating silver ions from other positive ions.
Removing Tarnish There are a number of methods for removing tarnish from sterling silver. The benefits and drawbacks of each will be discussed below.
Wheel Polishing: In cases of extreme tarnish and/or corrosion, it may be necessary to take the item to a jeweler or silver repair company. There the tarnish can be removed with jeweler's rouge. This is sometimes referred to as putting an item "on the wheel". While this method does remove tarnish, it also removes the patina, or fine scratches which give antique silver its beautiful glow, leaving in its place the shiny look of stainless steel. Thus, this method is avoided by serious silver collectors in favor of hand polishing.
Hand Polishing: This is the preferred method of care adhered to by most collectors, as it brings out the beautiful luster of the sterling without destroying its patina. There are a variety of products available for hand polishing, from pastes to creams. It is generally best to stay with well-known silver-care product manufacturers, as some inferior products may cause scratching. (When in doubt, test the product in an inconspicuous area or on a less valuable piece.) Some examples are Twinkle Silver Cream (very gentle), Wright's Silver Cream (slightly more abrasive), and creams and pastes by the Hagerty company. These are readily available through supermarkets, jewelry stores and silver dealers, as well as on the Internet.
To hand polish a sterling piece, make sure that the piece is free from dirt and grease. Apply an amount of the polishing product to a soft sponge or cloth, and rub to remove the tarnish. Sterling that has been regularly polished will need only a light amount of "elbow grease", while items that have not been polished for extended periods will require heavier pressure and/or prolonged polishing.
Follow the polishing with a good sudsing to remove excess polish. Use a gentle dishwashing liquid, and wipe with a sponge or soft cloth. Rinse in the hottest water you can stand (wearing rubber gloves will save your hands, while at the same time giving you a firmer grip), then buff with a soft dry cloth (an old linen tea towel absorbs water best).
Silver Dips: There are now a great many silver dips and liquids available. These dips contain thiourea, and are the lazy man's method of polishing sterling. The item is dipped in the liquid, and within a few seconds it attains brightness. This brightness, however, is not caused by removal of the tarnish, but by chemical conversion of silver sulfide to a white substance that is harder to remove than the original tarnish, necessitating yet another polishing with more abrasive substances. (This statement made from the personal experience of the writer, and confirmed through conversations with other collectors.)
Serious sterling collectors avoid silver dips. One reason is that silver dip tends to brighten areas of the design that should remain dark in order to give a relief effect. This is especially important in pieces that have Repoussé and chasing. Another reason is the difficulty in removing the end product of the conversion, which usually requires an abrasive cleanser.
Caveats: A few cautions should be noted. Sterling silver is a very soft metal that is easily damaged. Be careful not to dent the piece by knocking it against a sink or other hard surface. Be very gentle with sterling hinges, such as those on teapots and boxes, as these can be easily bent by mishandling. Do not use a toothbrush or other bristled brush on sterling, as this will permanently scratch the surface.
Some pieces should not be immersed in water. Items containing mirrors, wooden parts, fabric, glue, etc. should be polished with as little moisture as possible, then wiped with a damp sponge.
Mention should also be made of the vermeil or gold wash that was often used on the interior of cups and goblets and on the service end of utensils to protect against corrosive beverages and foods. This wash is usually thin, and can be easily removed with too-abrasive or too-vigorous polishing. Unless the vermeil lining is visibly tarnished, it should be left alone.
Frequency of Polishing / Storage: Sterling that is continuously on display, such as a tea service or candelabra, will need more frequent polishing than pieces that can be wrapped and stored. Much of this depends on the amount of sulfur in the environment (city dwellers living near high automobile traffic, for example). Simple sealable food storage bags, or dry cleaning bags for larger pieces, will inhibit tarnish from accumulating on stored pieces. Make sure that the item is thoroughly dry before storing, however, as trapped water will cause corrosion. |
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